SNC2D - Academic Science - Exam Notes

SNC2D Grade 10 Academic Science – Exam Notes SNC2D Optics Review Light -is energy -made of light particles called photons -an electromagnetic wave -travels at a very high speed -travels in a straight line -does not need medium to be transmitted -properties of particles and EM wave (particle-wave duality) -study of light: OPTICS Medium: any physical substance through which energy can be transferred Radiation: method of energy transfer that does not require a medium, the energy travels atspeed of light Visible Light: EM waves that the human eye can see Electromagnetic Wave -a wave that has both electric and magnetic parts -does not require medium -travels at the speed of light -use electromagnetic spectrum to classify these light waves -visible spectrum is the continuous sequence of colors that make up white light -color sequence is the order of the rainbow (ROYGBIV, red being lower energy andincreasing towards violet) -lowest to highest energy: radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light, UV light, x-rays, gamma rays Sources of Light

Indirect Light: non-luminous objects reflect luminous object’s light (ex. moon) Direct Light:luminous objects produce their own light (ex. sun) Types of Light Incandescent: heated materials produce light (ex. lightbulb, molten metals, stove element)Electrical Discharge: electrical current flowing through gas produces light (lightning, northernlights) Phosphorescent: materials called ‘phosphors’ absorb UV light from surroundings, STORE IT,emit energy as visible light (ex. glow in the dark toys) Fluorescent: materials absorb UV light then IMMEDIATELY release it as visible lightChemiluminescence: mixture of chemicals produce light (ex. glow sticks) Bioluminescence:chemiluminescence in living organisms (ex. jelly fish, e.coli, fireflies) Triboluminescence:light produced by friction (ex. lifesavers) LED (light emitting diode): electrical current flows through semiconductors (ex. newChristmas lights) The Ray Model -light travels in a straight line -light rays are the direction and straight path of the light -using light rays to see the path of light is called g eometric optics -matter can be transparent (see behind clearly), translucent (some light passes, can’t seebehind clearly), or opaque (no light passes, matter absorbs light) Reflection -the bouncing back of light from any surface Images: a reproduction of an object through the use of light Mirror: any polished surface reflecting an image (has two parts:glass/reflective surface andreflective thin film/opaque side) Plane: flat Incident Ray: incoming ray that strikes the surface Reflected Ray: ray that bounces off reflective surface Normal: line perpendicular (90 degrees) to the mirror’s surface Angle of Incidence: angle between incident ray and normal

Angle of Reflection: angle between normal and reflected ray Laws of Reflection 1. The angle of incidence EQUALS the angle of reflection 2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie on the same plane Specular Reflection: -reflection on smooth shiny surface -series of parallel rays hit the surface, their reflected rays are also parallel Diffuse Reflection: -light shines on surface that is not perfectly flat -many incident rays and angles of incidence -reflected rays are also different Virtual Image: an image formed by light coming from an apparent light source; light is notarriving at or coming from the actual image location; cannot be projected on a screen Images in Plane Mirrors -use the laws of reflection -distance from object to mirror is same as distance from image to mirror (image is located atsame distance but reversed) -object-image line is perpendicular to the mirror surface -extrapolate the rays of light from the eye -image is flipped horizontally and is in reverse order -this is called LATERAL INVERSION (180 degree rotation of an object) Properties of an Image SALT S : size of image (compared to object: same, smaller, larger) A : attitude of image (orientation compared to object: upright, inverted, laterally inverted L :location of image T : type of image; virtual, real Centre of Curvature (C): center of the sphere whose surface forms the mirror

Principal Axis: line going through the center of curvature and the center of the mirror Vertex (V): point where the principal axis intersects the mirror Focus (F): the single point where all light rays parallel to the principal axis will be reflected offthe mirror Concave Mirror (converging) -caves you in; inner surface/center of mirror bulges away from you Concave Mirror Rules: 1. Any ray traveling parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the focal point( STRAIGHT AND “F”) 2. Any ray traveling through the focal point (F) is reflected parallel to the principalaxis ( “F” AND STRAIGHT) 3. Any ray traveling through the center of curvature (C) is reflected back throughthe center of curvature ( THROUGH “C”) Converging/Concave Mirrors Object Image Location Size Attitude Location Type beyond C smaller inverted between C and F real at C same size inverted at C real between C and F larger inverted beyond C real at F no image no image no image no image inside F larger upright behind mirror virtual Convex Mirrors (Diverging) -sticks out at you, diverges away -reflection is from the outer surface and the center of the mirror bulges towards you

Same rules as Concave Mirrors 1. STRAIGHT AND “F” 2. “F” AND STRAIGHT 3.THROUGH “C” Focus (F) and center of curvature (C) is now behind the mirror as the VIRTUAL FOCUS -brain extrapolates the rays behind the mirror, where they appear to converge THE REFLECTED RAY CONTINUES BEHIND THE MIRROR AS A DOTTED LINE IMAGE IS ALWAYS UPRIGHT, SMALLER, BEHIND THE MIRROR, VIRTUAL Refraction -happens between 2 media/materials -light bends when it travels from one material into another Angle of refraction: the angle between refracted ray and the normal Rules for Refraction 1. Incident ray, refracted ray , and normal all lie on the same plane-incident andrefracted ray are on opposite sides of the line that separates the two media 2. Light bends TOWARDS the normal when the speed of light in the secondmediumDECREASES 3. Light bends AWAY from the normal when the speed of light in the secondmediumINCREASES Index of Refraction -the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of that medium -Light travels thefastest in a vacuum [3.00×108 ] -Mediums slow down light because it contains higher index of refraction v = speed of light in given medium c = speed of light in vacuum n = index of refraction N=C/V – index of refraction can also be calculated using the sines of the angles: N=SIN<i/SIN<R G iven→c=? v=? n=? R equired → What to define? A nalyze → Equation S olve → Solve and answer S olution → Statement?

The Critical Angle -angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction of 90 degrees -lies at 90 degrees or along the boundary between the two media -the angle of incidence past which light waves traveling through a denser medium to asurface of a less dense medium are completely reflected instead of refracted -when the angle of incidence increases past the critical angle, the refracted ray will no longerexit the medium and it will reflect into the medium (total internal reflection) Total Internal Reflection -situation when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle -occurs when: 1. light is traveling more slowly in the first medium than the second 2. the angle of incidence is large enough that no refraction occurs in the secondmedium,instead, the ray is reflected back into the first medium -n(1) must be greater than n(2) -refracted ray bends away from normal -eventually there is no refracted ray and only reflection Lenses -involve principle of refraction: light is refracted at the air to glass surface, travels through thelens and is then refracted again in the second air lens surface on the other side -different lenses are made with the curvature of the lens -can be drawn using ray diagrams or using the thin lens formula Optical Centre (O): point at the exact center of the lens Principle Focus (F): point on the principle axis of a lens where the light rays parallelconverge after refraction Secondary Focus (F’): equidistant to the principle focus bubt on the other side of the lens Converging Lens : parallel light rays converge through a single point after refraction or thelight, THICKEST IN THE MIDDLE, THINNEST AT THE EDGE F’ IS ON THE LEFT SIDE, SAME SIDE AS LIGHT SOURCE Locating for Converging Lens & Diverging Lens -STRAIGHT AND F

-F’ AND STRAIGHT -THROUGH O Diverging Lens: parallel light rays diverge after refraction from the lens, THINNEST INMIDDLE, THICKEST AT THE EDGE F IS ON THE LEFT SIDE, SAME SIDE AS ORIGIN LIGHT RAYS BEING REFRACTED THROUGH THE LENS ARE CALLED EMERGENTRAYS Thin Lens Equation (where the image is) f = focal length d o = distance of the object d i = distance of the image Magnification Equation (size of image) m = magnification h i = height of image h o = height of object Variable Positive Negative d o (objectdistance) always never d i (imagedistance) real image (opposite sideof lens) virtual image (same side aslens) h o (object height) when upright/upward when inverted/downward h i (image height) when upright/upward when inverted/downward f (focal length) converging lens diverging lens M (magnification) upright image inverted image Human Eye Pupil: hole where light enters the eye

Iris: coloured ring of muscles that control the amount of light entering your eye by dilating orconstricting your pupil Cornea: cover on your eye that acts like lenses, directly over iris Lens: lens is an actual hard lens, focuses light as it passes through your pupil Retina: made of light sensitive cells called photoreceptors, convert light to electrical signaltransmitted to brain Photoreceptors: rods and cones, detect light in the eye and translates it to nerve signals sentto the brain Optic Nerve: carries signals from retina to the brain to see Sclera: eye cover Vitreous Humor: white part of the eye, fluid filled sac Ciliary Body: By using the muscles that shape the lens, we focus by ACCOMMODATION: tosee objects closer up, our lens must become smaller and fatter; to see objects farther away,our lens must become taller and more slender. thinner *An INVERTED image is created on our retina by the cornea and lens that concentrate lightentering our eyes. The signal information is processed by the brain into an image that isUPRIGHT and visible to us.* Hyperopia (far-sightedness) -you can’t focus on near objects but can focus on far objects -light rays would be focused on a spot behind the retina which is impossible so imagesbecome closer and blurry -CONVERGING lenses help correct the vision as it will cause theimage to focus on our retina, bends light rays so image will focus on retina Myopia (near-sightedness) -you can’t focus on far objects but can focus on near objects -light rays would be focused on a spot in front of the retina meaning the rays are diverging bythe time they hit the retina -DIVERGING lens can help correct vision as it will cause image to focus on our retina. bendslight rays to focus on retina Presbyopia -age related vision impairment due to loss of ye elasticity from ciliary body, lens stiffens andunable to accommodate easily

-images form behind the retina, difficult to focus on nearby objects Contact Lenses -placed on cornea of eye -shaped to correct near-sightedness or for cosmetics Colour Blindness -’color normal’ see images as combinations of RGB light -’color deficient’ have inactive rods and cones of a particular sensitivity for RGB light Chemistry Study Notes Element: pure substance that cannot be broken down Period: row of elements on periodic table (SAME NUMBER OF ELECTRON SHELLS)Group: column of elements in periodic table with similar properties (SAME NUMBER OFVALENCE ELECTRONS) Alkali metals: the elements in the first column, most reactive (group 1) Alkaline earth metals : the elements in the second column, second most reactive (group 2)Halogens: elements in the seventeenth column, most reactive nonmetals (group 17) Noble gasses: elements in the eighteenth column, least reactive (group 18) Properties of metal: metallic, conductive, malleable, solid Properties of nonmetals: solid, gas, or liquid, brittle, dull, insulators Protons: positive, in nucleus, atomic number Electrons : negative, orbiting around nucleus, atomic number Neutrons: neutral, in nucleus, rounded atomic mass minus atomic number Atoms: electrically neutral particle Ions: -charged particle that loses or gains electrons to have full outer orbit -metals lose electrons to become positively charged CATIONS -nonmetals gain electrons to become negatively charged ANIONS

Ionic compounds: composed of anions and cations, conduct electricity and dissolve in water,metal loses electron while nonmetal gains Ionic bond: attraction of two oppositely charged ions, form between cation and anion,transfer or electrons Covalent bond: sharing of electrons between two nonmetals, forms a molecule Molecular compounds: composed of molecules Diatomic particles: elements that share a pair of electrons with the same element to reachstable octet (HOFBrINCl) Naming: Two Non-Metals (Molecular Binary Compounds): -use prefix system: 1=mono 4=tetra 7=hepta 10:deca 2=di 5=penta 8=octa 3=tri 6=hexa 9=nona -elements are written in order with the last element having an “ide” ending -ex: N2O4:DInitrogen TETRAoxide -NO REDUCING -IF FIRST ELEMENT ONLY HAS ONE, DO NOT USE “MONO” One Metal and One Non-Metal (Ionic Binary Compounds): -trend in charge numbers: I II III IV V VI VII +1 +2 +3 -/+4 -3 -2 -1 -for formula, write symbol for each element, metal first -write charge numbers as subscripts -switch the charge numbers -check if they can be REDUCED -ex. Ba2+, S2-; Ba2S2; BaS -ex. Al2O3: aluminum oxide Transition Metals (Multiple Charge Number Ionic Compounds)

-metal has two or more charges (ex. Mercury) -use STOCK SYSTEM to show charge number of metal then the nonmetal ending in “ide” -do reverse-switcheroo to with the nonmetal and metal to determine which charge the metalhas -ex. copper (II) fluoride is CuF2 -NO STOCK SYSTEM IF ELEMENT HAS ONLY 1 CHARGE (ex. Zn is only 2+) Polyatomic Ionic Compounds: Hydroxide: OH – Nitrate: NO 3- Chlorate: ClO 3- Carbonate: (CO 3 ) 2- Sulfate: (SO 4 ) 2- Phosphate: (PO 4 ) 3- Ammonium: NH 4+ -keep polyatomic compounds as one unit, do not break them apart -use reverse switcheroo -anion is named according to polyatomic ion rather than the names of the individualelements -ex. Mg 2+ , (NO 3 )-; Mg 1 (NO 3 ) 2 ; Mg(NO 3 ) 2 Law of Conservation of Mass -in any given chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of theproducts, no new atoms are created and no atoms disappear -reason why we balance chemical equations Balancing Equations -use coefficients in front of elements to balance the number of elements of both sides of theequation -start by balancing the elements that occur only once on each side -keep polyatomic ions together as 1 unit -change “H2O” to “HOH” (one hydrogen, one hydroxide) -have list of atom/element count Types of Reactions Synthesis -two simple reactants combine to make a larger more complex product

– A+B=AB -ex. zinc+sulfur=zinc sulfide (Zn+S= ZnS) *sometimes in a reaction of aqueous reactants, one of the products is insoluble and appearsin the solution as precipitate* Decomposition -large compounds are broken down into two smaller compounds of elements – AB=A+B -ex. energy+water= hydrogen+oxygen (2H20= 2H2+O2) Single Displacement -one element replaces or displaces an element in a compound – A+BC= AC+B -ex. copper+silver nitrate= copper(II) nitrate+silver Double Displacement –two elements in different compounds trade places – AB+CD= AD+BC +-+-+–+ Complete Combustion -oxygen is plentiful -ONLY PRODUCTS: CO 2 , H 2 O -hydrocarbon: any compound with H2, C, or O2 -ex. methane+oxygen= carbondioxide+water -CH4+2O2=CO2+2H2O Incomplete Combustion -oxygen is limited -ONLY PRODUCTS: C, CO, CO2, H2O -ex. butane+oxygen=carbon dioxide+water+carbon monoxide+carbon (soot) -C4H10+5O2=2CO2+5H2O+CO+C -Combustion reactions are always synthesis (element+oxygen=oxide) – exothermic:releases heat – endothermic: absorbs heat

Corrosion : breakdown of metal resulting from reactions with chemicals from theenvironment ACIDS (H): -neutralizes bases -all acids have “hydro” in front -are molecular -tastes sour -turns blue litmus paper red -typically react with metals to produce hydrogen -react with carbonate to produce CO2 gas -conducts electricity (electrolytes) -solution made of ions (electrolytes) can conduct electricity -all acids have at least one hydrogen ion where they dissolve in water -chemical formula always begins with ‘h’ and is (aq) -BINARY ACIDS: CONTAIN 2 ELEMENTS (HF, HBr, HCl, H2S) -OXYACIDS: HAS POLYATOMIC IONS (HC2H3O2, HNO3, H2CO3, H2SO4, H3PO4) -THE NUMBER OF HYDROGENS IN THE ACID SHOWN IS EQUIVALENT TO THE VALUEOF THE CHARGE ON THE POLYATOMIC ION BASES (OH): -are ionic -metal oxides react with water to form a base -conduct electricity -tastes bitter -feels slippery -changes red litmus paper blue -are electrolytes but are made of ions

many bases contain hydroxide or carbonate ions ex. NaOH, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH, Mg(OH)2, AL(OH)3, NaHCO3 Acid-Base Indicators -natural or synthetic materials change color to detect if it is basic or acidic The pH Scale -numerical scale from 0-14 -pH of 7 is neutral (ex, water) -pH of 0-7 is more acidic -pH of 7-14 is more basic -acids form H+ ions in a solution -bases have more OH than H+ which gives them their basic properties -concentration of H+ ions determines how acidic or basic a solution is, where it is on the pH(power of hydrogen) Neutralization -occurs when acid and base are mixed -product is a solution that is close to or is neutral (pH of 7) -PRODUCTS: WATER ANDSALT (ANY IONIC COMPOUND) -SPECIFIC TYPE OF DOUBLE DISPLACEMENTREACTION Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Base Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue Phenolphthalein Colourless Magenta/Pink Litmus Red Blue *NON-METAL OXIDES (NMOA) MIX WITH WATER TO PRODUCE ACID* *METAL OXIDE(MOB) MIX WITH WATER TO PRODUCE BASE* Acid Precipitation

-emission of NO x (NO 2 and NO, vehicle engines) and SO 2 (burning fossil fuels) combinewith water to form acids in the environment -freshwater is slightly acidic because of CO2 -harms fragile organisms and travels up food chain -goes into soils and washes away essential metal ions -weakens trees -damage to steel structures, buildings, and monuments Buffering -buffering capacity: substance’s ability to resist changes in the pH level -limestone in soil hashigh buffering capacity Scrubbers -combustion gasses fed through scrubber tower -gasses showered through paste mixture of limestone and water -limestone paste absorbs combustion gasses and convert it to CaSO3 -remaining gasses continue up scrubber tower and are released -CaSO3 particles are removed when they fall down to bottom of the scrubber and can beconverted to gypsum SNC2D Biology Review Cell Theory: -all living things are made up of at least one or more cells and their products -the cell is thesimplest unit that can carry out life processes -all cells come from other cells; they do not come from non-living matter Types of Cells: Prokaryotic : -single celled life forms -simple, primitive cells -no nucleus or organelles -ex. bacteria andarchaea Eukaryotic

-single or multicellular organisms -more complex and larger -do have nucleus and organelles -make up multicellular organisms like plants, fungi Limitations of Cell Size -as a cell grows bigger, the ratio or the area and volume decrease meaning the cell will nothave enough room for nutrients -the cell membrane must be large enough to support the cell volume Organelles Cytoplasm -suspends organelles -fluid,jelly, liquid filling Cell Membrane -supports cell allows diffusions of unwanted substances -semi-permeable membrane Nucleus -spherical -contains all DNA and genetic info Mitochondria -powerhouse of cell -makes energy available for the cell -converts glucose to energy Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) -3-D network of branching tubes that transport materials throughout the cell Golgi Body (Apparatus) -secretes mucus -collects and removes unwanted materials -has a stacked structure like pancake

Vacuole -contains substances, isolates and removes waste, maintains internal fluid pressure Cell Wall (plants) -helps plant hold its shape -found outside the cell membrane Big Vacuole (plants) -full of water to keep stem and leaves firm -isolates and removes waste Chloroplast -absorbs light for photosynthesis to occur -has chlorophyll that gives green color Cell Division -growth (cells can’t grow too big) -repair reproduction (sexual and asexual) The Cell Cycle -eukaryotic cells grow and divide Interphase -cell performs normal functions -genetic material and DNA copied -DNA is doubled Mitosis: Prophase -long strands of DNA condense into compact form called chromosome -DNA shortened andthickened -nuclear membrane splits Mitosis: Metaphase -chromosomes line up in center of the cell, held by spindle fibers in order for mitosis tocontinue Mitosis: Anaphase -centromere splits and sister chromatids separate -appeared to be pulled apart

-daughter chromosomes move to opposite ends of cell Mitosis: Telophase -new nuclear membrane forms -daughter chromosomes unwind and stretch out to become stringy masses -two nucleis Cytokinesis -final stage -organelles divide producing two identical daughter cells -in plants, plate develops betweentwo cells called cell wall -in animals, cell membrane is pinched off in the centre Chromatid: half of a chromosome Chromosome: organized bundle of DNA Chromatin: messy bundle of DNA Centromere: holds two chromatids together to create a chromosome Spindle Fibers: controls the movement of chromosomes, are scaffolding for the cell, doesn’tremain fixed, originate from the centrioles Cancer -cell division gone wrong -cells divide rapidly ignoring the body’s chemical reactions telling cell not to divide -changesin DNA that controls cell cycle Tumours Benign: -stays together, no serious effects to surrounding tissue -not cancerous Malignant: -interferes with functions of neighboring cells -cancerous Metastasis: -cancer cells break away from the tumor to settle into other parts of the body -cancerous Carcinogens

-factors that can cause mutation (random change in DNA), leading to cancer -ex: tobaccosmoke, radiation, viruses, chemicals in plastics -some cancers have a genetic/hereditary link Diagnosing Cancer Imaging -endoscopy (fiber optics) -x-ray (viewing bones and lungs) -ultrasound (sound waves for soft tissue view) -CT scan (x-rays at different angles) -MRI (radio waves and magnetic field generate images) Examining Cells -biopsy (sample of cells), viewed with microscope and genetic tests Treating Cancer Oncologist -specializing in cancer medicine Surgery -surgically removing cancerous cells Chemotherapy -using drugs to travel through body and target different cells -shrink or slow the growth oftumor -linked with surgery Radiation -cancer cells damaged easily by ionizing radiation -daughter cells are damaged and cannotdivide further Biophotonics -using beams of light to detect cancer early and treat Hierarchy: organizational structure with more complex things at top and simpler things belowit

Organization of Organism 1. Cell (ex. heart muscle cell) 2. Tissue (collection of similar cells to perform particular but limited function. ex. heart muscle tissue) 3. Organ (structure composed of different tissues to perform complex function. ex. heart) 4. Organ System (system of one or more organs and structures that work together for amajor body function. ex. digestion, circulatory) Tissues Epithelial -thin sheets of tightly packed cells that covers body surfaces and lines internal organs -protection from dehydration -ex. skin, lining of digestive system Connective -specialized tissue that provides support and protection for various parts of the body -supportand insulation -ex. bones, tendons, blood Muscle -specialized tissue containing proteins that can contract and enable body movement -ex.heart, muscles that make bones move Nerve -specialized tissue that can conduct electrical signals from one part of the body to another -sensory, communication, coordination -ex. brain, nerves in sensory organs Cellular Differentiation : -process where a cell becomes specialized to perform specific function -an animal cell candifferentiate into many cells called stem cells Stem Cells: an undifferentiated cell that can divide to form specialized cells

Embryonic Stem Cells : can differentiate into any kind of cell Tissue Stem Cells: exist within specialized tissue, only able to differentiate into certain typesof cells Skeleton -supports and protects body -provides structure -anchor for muscles -store calcium and minerals -bone marrow that produces red and white blood cells -allows movement -consists of bones, ligaments, cartilage Ligaments: connects bone to bone, holds bones together at joints Cartilage: dense connective tissue that provides support (ex. ear, nose) Tendon: less elastic than ligaments, connect muscle to bones Spine: central support for body, made of vertebrae Hands & Feet: bones with flexibility(hands: carpals, metacarpals, phalanges; feet: tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges) Ribs : protect heart and lungs Hips & Legs: for movement and posture (bones are tibia, fibula, femur, patella) Arms:flexibility (ulna, radius, humerus, clavicle, scapula) Types of Bones Long: longer than wide (ex. femur, humerus) Short: about as long as wide (ex. carpals, tarsals) Flat: flat plates (ex. scapula, sternum) Irregular: non-uniform shape (ex. mandible, vertebrae) Sesamoid: embedded in tendon(patella) Axial Skeleton -skull bones, vertebrae, ribs, sternum Appendicular Skeleton

-bones of pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, upper and lower limbs Joints Hinge: flexion, extension (ex elbow/knee) Pivot: pivot, turn, rotate, move (ex. top of neck) Ball and Socket: flexion, internal/external rotation (ex. shoulder, hip) Saddle: flexion,extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction (ex. thumb) Muscles -composed of muscle fibers arranged in bundles -proteins cause contraction -skeletal muscle: under voluntary control -smooth muscle: involuntary (ex. intestines) -cardiac muscle: located in heart -nerve impulses causes muscles to contract and move bones -muscles can pull but notpush, WORK IN PAIRS Systems Digestive: system that digests food and excretes waste (mouth, esophagus, stomach,intestines, liver, pancreas, gall bladder) Circulatory: transports oxygen and nutrients throughout the body and carries away waste(heart, blood, blood vessels) Respiratory: provides oxygen for the body and allows for CO2 to leave (nose, mouth,bronchi, trachea, lungs) Musculoskeletal: supports body, supports delicate organs, allows movement (bones andskeletal muscle) Nervous: senses the environment and coordinates responses (brain, spinal cord, peripheralnerves) Endocrine: secretes hormones to circulatory system (glands) Urinary: eliminates waste and regulates blood and liquid in body (kidneys, ureters, bladder,urethra) Integumentary: protects body from damage (skin and its appendages like nails and hair)Reproductive: for sexual reproduction (sex organs) Interactions of Systems

Digestive and Circulatory -digestive breaks down food into small molecules that pass through the walls of the digestivetract -without the circulatory system, only tissues next to the digestive tract will receive thenutrients -circulatory provides transportation of nutrients all around the body ex. capillaries surround digestive tract to carry blood that absorbs the nutrients Musculoskeletal and Respiratory -skeletal muscle tissue uses oxygen and nutrients to move -every muscle contraction, the rate of cellular respiration increases -to fuel the active system, circulatory must deliver a constant supply of oxygen and nutrientswith the respiratory system working together to remove CO2 waste SEXUAL REPRODUCTION -2 parents and a unique offspring -responsible for variation between individuals -meiosis -two haploid cells (sexcells/gametes) combine to reproduce a diploid cell (eventuallybecoming unique offspring) Diploid (2): cell or organism with 2 sets of chromosomes, 1 from each parent (46chromosomes) Haploid (1): cell or organism (sex cells) has half the number of chromosomes(23 chromosomes) Gametes -haploid male/female sex cell -egg/sperm cell -produced through meiosis SEQUENCE OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION 1. Meiosis between male and female produces haploid gametes (egg/sperm) ingonads(ovaries, testes) 2. Male gamete combines with female gamete 3. A zygote (diploid cell formed by combination of two gametes) is produced thenfurtherdeveloped into an e mbryo (multicellular diploid eukaryotic cell in earlieststages of development) 4. Embryo develops into a mature and unique offspring from mitosis and celldivision.

Development of Sperm 1. Hormones signal sperm to develop in the seminiferous tubules in the testes . 2. Epididymis receives sperm and stores it for several days 3. Ejaculation causes sperm to forcefully expel from the tale of the epididymis into the vas deferrens 4. Seminal vesicles/ prostate: secretions are added to sperm, sperm becomes semen 5. Semen passes through urethra and is ejaculated through the far end of the u rethra Development & Pathway of Egg 1. Egg (ovum) is released into the ovary (follicle) 2. Follicle matures and releases egg into fallopian tubes 3. If fertilized. egg (zygote) remains in fallopian tubes then develops into a cluster of cells, implanting in the uterus for development. Plants -multicellular organisms -eukaryotic (have nucleus and organelles) -immobile -autotrophic -can reproduce sexually and asexually -must exchange gasses, absorb water and nutrients to transport as food -do not need complex systems to hunt for their food Shoot System -system in flowering plant that is specialized to photosynthesize and reproduce -consists of: Leaf: main photosynthetic organ, organelles in leaf have chloroplasts for photosynthesis,have been adapted for protection, reproduction, and chloroplasts

Stem: main function is to support leaves and flowers, connects leaves to roots, transportssugar from leaves to roots, transports water and minerals and nutrients from the roots to theleaves Flower: designed for sexual reproduction, can be male/female/both, pollination occursthrough wing, insects, birds, etc. Root System -system in flowering plant that anchors plant, absorbs water and minerals, stores food -waterand nutrients are sent up to leaves through xylem Fibrous Roots (monocots) -adapted to increase surface area for absorption -shallow depth in soil -ex. grass, lilies Tap Roots (dicots) -adapted to anchor plants and for storage -grows deeper into the soil -ex. carrot, tree, dandelion Plant Tissues Dermal Tissue -forms outer layer of plant (epidermis) for protection -epidermal leaf cells produce waterproof cuticle which stops intruders -cuticle: layer of wax on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf that blocks the diffusion ofwater and gasses Vascular Tissue -for circulation of minerals, nutrients, water 1. XYLEM -transports water and dissolved materials from the roots up to the leaves -elongated cellsjoin to make tubes 2. PHLOEM -transports products of photosynthesis all around the plant -elongated cell like tubes remainalive at maturity Ground Tissue

-the “filler” located between the dermal and vascular tissue -performs functions of photosynthesis, food and water storage, and structural support Periderm tissue: tissue on the surface of a plant that produces bark on stems and rootsEpidermal tissue: thin layer of cells covering all non-woody surfaces of the plant Meristematic Cell: an undifferentiated plant cell that can differentiate to form specializedcells, similar to animal stem cells, ONLY PLANT CELL THAT UNDERGOES MITOSIS *purpose of cell division in cells: grow in size, shape, perform functions, have plants growand reproduce through meiosis* Apical Meristem: undifferentiated cell at tips of plant’s shoots and roots; cells that divide andenable the plant to grow longer/taller and develop into specialized tissues Lateral Meristem: undifferentiated cell under the bark in the stems and roots of woody plants;cells that divide and enable the plant to grow wider and develop specialized tissues in thestem Tissues working together -stem, leaf, and flower all work together to do its main job of feeding itself (photosynthesis) Absorbing light and gasses – xylem in vascular tissue brings the water to mesophyll tissues of the leaf and the guardcells of the stomata allow for CO2 to enter -water and CO2 go through photosynthesis in the chloroplasts of the leaves -the glucose made from photosynthesis transfers to the vascular bundle/vein and into thephloem to send the food for the roots, meristem tissue, and fruit – guard cells controlling stomatal pore a re responsible for gas exchange -guard cells open and close to allow CO2 in when photosynthesis can occur and let O2 out Palisade Layer -layer of tall, closely packed cells containing chloroplasts -just below the upper surface of theleaf -type of ground tissue Spongy Mesophyll -under the palisade layer of the leaf – circulates air and exchange of gas

-a region of loosely packed cells containing chloroplasts -in the middle of the leaf -type of ground tissue Guard Cells -one pair of special cells in the epidermis (epidermal tissue) -surrounds the stomata to letgas in Stromae (plural stomata) -an opening in the surface of a leaf that allows for exchange of gasses -surrounded by twoguard cells Vegetative Reproduction -asexual reproduction (cloning) -process where a plant produces a genetically identical offspring from its roots or shoots -ex. strawberries sent long ‘runners’ that can grow into new roots using the meristems in thetips of these ‘runners’