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HSP3M | Introduction to Anthropology, Psychology, and SociologyPages
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HSP3M Grade 11 Anthropology – Introduction to Anthropology Anthropology ● two types of anthropology and the fields regarding each one: ● the Yanomamo ■ Napoleon Chagnon went to study the Yanomamopeople (hunter-gatherers) in South America in 1969 ■ offered the people goods (weapons, tools, vaccinesetc.) ■ saw the Yanomamo to be violent people andbelieved aggression to be part of their culture ■ Patrick Tierney studied Yanomamo in 2000 ■ saw that they weren’t violent—believed Chagnonmanipulated data by causing the aggression of thepeople ○ Changnon incited violence and conflict he observed by providing(bribing) the people with goods, thus creating competition between them and neighboring tribes (source of aggression) ■ Tierney and Changnon studied the Yanomamodecades apart—the time could’ve allowed changein their society and culture—missionaries, industrialization, missionaries etc. ■ this case study showed the important of ethics inanthropological studies—anthropologists shouldalways consider and respect the dignity, privacy, and safety of their subjects Cultural Anthropology ● culture is the total system of ideas, values, behaviors, and attitudes of asociety commonly shared by most of its members ■ includes rituals (e.g.: washing dishes) and abstractconcepts (e.g.: meaning of time) ● cultural anthropologists study both past and present cultures ● there are 3 fields are ethnology, linguistic anthropology and archaeology Research Tools ○ informants: a reliable and knowledgeable person who providesspecific info to an anthropologist on the culture that arestudying ■ there has to be a certain level of trust inresearcher-informant relationship, as informants can hold back or provide false info ○ interviews ■ When there is no clear direction or set of questionsfor the interview, it is appropriate for use by anthropologists who are unfamiliar with thesubject (only used if the researcher will be present for a long time; without pre-established questions,
the researcher has little control over the respondent's answers). ■ Researchers that stay in communities for a fewweeks conduct semi-structured interviews, whichenable the researcher to prepare some questions in advance (the researcher will have an outline ofwhat type of info they want, but not a strict list of questions). The interview is adaptable, enablingnew leads to be pursued and the expression of individual ideas (but can be easy to get off topic). ■ Structured interviews use a predetermined list ofquestions that never changes. This approach is onlyemployed when the researcher has very specific questions and is very clear on the subject. Non-experts may conduct the interview as long as they adhere to the researcher's directions. There is noneed to establish a relationship, and the data can be compared to that of other responders. Usuallyconsists of yes/no closed-ended questions. ○ at beginning of research, researchers often count all peoplethey are studying, and map their locations ■ this kind of info can be compared todata which was received from interviews to check for accuracy ■ this kind of info more accurate—quantitative data Ethnology ● ethnology is the study of origins and cultures of different races and people ● they study a culture through participant observation ○ method pioneered by Bronislaw Malinowski ○ the careful watching of a group, in some cases living with itsmembers and participating in their culture ○ purpose of participant observation is for the researcher to getthe native’s perspective on everything in life ○ detailed notes are taken, to write an ethnography (the writtenaccount of a culture) ○ many sacrifices for researchers—new climate, new food, newlanguage, new customs etc. ● problems with participant observation ○ highly subjective—conclusions which are shaped by a person’scultural and personal perspective, feelings, and beliefs ■ to make data more reliable, researchers shouldalso use objective data (conclusions based on factsand data and uninfluenced by personal bias) along with the subjective participant observation note ○ important for researchers to use reflexivity—the practice ofreflecting on their own world view, biases, and impact on theculture they are studying ○ researchers should share work with their subjects, to see if dataand conclusions are accurate ● Margaret Mead and Derek Freeman ○ Margaret Mead studied the Samoa people in 1925, to see ifstress of adolescence is caused by biology (adolescence itself) or
by society. Mead studied Samoan girls through participant observation, and concluded Samoan girls were less stressedbecause they had more sexual freedom. Also concluded that sex roles are determined by culture, and not biology. ○ In the 1960s, Derek Freeman studied in Western Samoa,criticizing Mead’s work. He believed that Samoans had veryrestrictive sexual practices, and believed Mead had a contradicting study because she was tricked by her informants,as Mead asked very personal questions (virginity). ○ In 2009, Paul Shankman re-examined both Mead and Freeman’sstudies. He concluded that they were both right. Mead, working in American Samoa, discovered that Samoans hadpremarital sex, which in the 1920s was shamed upon by Americans. in 1960s, when Freeman was doing fieldwork inWestern Samoa (different part of country), attitudes around premarital sex had changed. Researchers were coming fromdifferent contexts (generations) and had different experiences in Samoa. Samoa also greatly changed in-between the timeMead and Freeman visited, as WWII, colonization, and Christianity missionaries began. ● Ruth Benedict: “The Chrysanthemum and the Sword” ○ Ruth Benedict hired by US government to research Japan inorder to help Americans understand and defeat the Japanese army ○ because of war, Ruth couldn’t live in Japan, so she used culturalmaterials available to her (newspaper, films, literature etc.)and interviews Japanese-Americans to complete research abroad ○ her research and book have been criticized ● Dobe Ju/’bonsai ○ For 40 years, Canadian Richard Lee researched them. began as ahunter-gatherer society, but as a result of globalization andcommerce, they gradually transitioned to farming. ○ Richard Lee studied them because he wanted to know how ourancestors of hunter-gatherers behaved Schools of Thought ● cultural relativism ○ belief that anthropologists can’t compare two cultures becauseeach culture has its own internal rules that must be accepted ○ the response to cultural evolutionism (belief that culturesevolve from savage, to barbarian, to civilized) which assumed an ethnocentric view (belief that one’s own culture is superiorto all others) of Europe in 19th century ● functional theory ○ belief that every belief, action or relationship in culturefunctions to meet the needs of individuals ○ stresses importance of independence among all things within asocial system to ensure long term survival ○ meeting the needs of individuals makes the who culturesuccessful ○ rejected cultural evolutionism, but believed cultures should becompared (comparison to cultural relativism)
● cultural materialism ○ belief that materials or conditions in environment (climate, foodsupply) influence how a culture develops, creating the ideas and ideology of culture ○ think that society grows by trial and error, and that anythingthat is not valuable to society's capacity for production andreproduction will eventually vanish from it. ■ institutions (law, religion) must be beneficial tosociety or they will no longer exist ○ the stages of culture development: 1. the infrastructure: society’s materialresources (technology, population,land etc.) 2. the structure: a society’s familial,political, and economic social systems 3. the superstructure: a society’s ideas,values, symbols, and religions ● idea of Hindu sacred cow—can’t be eaten because of its important role inagriculture ● material conditions change before ideas change ● feminist anthropology ○ ensured feminine voices were heard and included inanthropology and its research and works ○ studied how cultures determine gender roles ■ gender and status in family and society was basedhow which gender could bring more food to tableat the end of the day ○ debunk gender myths and show our ideas about gender areculturally constructed (created or shaped by culture—not biology) ● postmodernism ○ belief that it’s impossible to have any true knowledge about theworld ● what we know about the world is our own construction, created by society ○ they believe anthropologists can’t study their subjects in adetached way—relationship between informant and researcherwill always exist ■ Dunn and heavy metal—reflexivity must bepracticed Linguistic Anthropology ● study human languages and how language affects and expressed culture ● Large firms hire linguistic anthropologists to teach staff how to communicateclearly with people from different cultural backgrounds so that they won't be misunderstood. ● there are 3 areas of linguistic anthropology: historical, structural, andsociolinguistics ● historical linguistics ○ compare the similarities and differences of language structuresso they can understand how languages are related and how people migrated in the past ○ The globe is filled with Roma people. They have moved around alot since they have been driven out of towns and nations all over
the world. Language linguistics has been able to pinpoint the Indian subcontinent as the language's origin. ● structural linguistics ○ the study of how sounds are put together to make meaning ○ According to Noam Chomsky's idea of universal grammar, allhuman infants are born with internal, fundamental principles forgrammar that they use while they pick up their native tongue. Because language structure is predisposed in our brains, childrenpick up languages quickly. Evolutionary biologists disagree, claiming that language is a learned talent rather than somethingthat is encoded in the brain. There is some validity to Chomsky's theory because there are regularities and traits shared by themore than 5000 languages spoken worldwide. ○ dialects—may not be perfect grammar, but individualsunderstand them (I ain’t got no shoes… I ain’t got none either) ● sociolinguistics ○ the study of how people use language within their own cultureto express social status and context ■ a teen would talk to friend and teacher differently ○ also study unspoken language—body language ■ rude to look teacher in eye for Aboriginals; rude toshow teeth in public (Japan) Archaeology ● the cultural anthropology of the past ● excavate physical remains of past cultures to understand and reconstructthem ● archaeologists can study cultures with no written record (prehistory) or studysites with a written history ● prehistoric archaeology ○ for civilizations with no written record, archaeology is the onlyway to find out how people lived ○ spread of tobacco by taking dirt samples and searching fortobacco seeds—trade routes, people contact ● historic archaeology ○ archaeology can supplement an existing historic record bytelling us about life of people who may not be included inwritten history ○ unusual landfill archaeology: meat consumption went up duringmeat shortage, junk food consumed more than a person said they did, plastic had very little component in landfill (despitethe belief of plastic harm) Physical Anthropology ● physical anthropologists want to know where humans as a species come from,how our bodies evolved, and what makes humans unique ● there are 3 fields are:
○ paleoanthropology: the study of bone and stone remains of ourancient ancestors ○ primatology: study of primates ○ human variation: the study of the physical differences andsimilarities of existing human populations ● paleoanthropology ○ study of human ancestors based on evidence from distantevolutionary past ○ hominin is a human or human ancestor ○ much evidence is in the form of preserved remains orimpressions of biological matter (fossils) ○ Australopithecus africanus ■ Donald Johanson found 40% of a skeleton in Africa(Australopithecus africanus) and named it Lucy. ■ In 2006, another skeleton was found of a 3 year oldfemale. ■ walked on 2 feet, but swung and climbed on trees ○ Charles Darwin ■ spent 4 years aboard HMS Beagle where he madeobservations on the wildlife and fossils he collectedfrom Galapagos Islands ■ proposed idea that species were forced to evolveor they would become extinct. Those that were able to adapt lived and passed down thecharacteristics that allowed them to survive to offspring. This theory was published in the Originof Species in 1859. ■ believed humans first evolved from Africa, butfaced much opposition as common belief was Asia. In 1924, Raymond Dart found a skull in Africa, andit turned out to be human. Named it “Australopithecus africanus.” First person toprovide African origin evidence. ■ Louis and Mary Leakey found proof of moreAustralopithecus africanus skeletons in Africa. Found other species (other than Australopithecusafricanus) in Africa, proving the African origin, and starting the school of primatology. ● bipedalism ○ bipedalism is the trait of habitually walking on 2 feet (thedifference between humans and primates) ○ when anthropologists find fossils, they look for traits ofbipedalism (s-shaped spine, wide pelvis, arched feet), which prove the skeleton to be of a hominin ○ bipedalism began more than 3.5 million years ago—MaryLeakey’s discovery of Laetoli footprints preserved in volcanicash ● Neanderthals ○ Neanderthals interbred with homo sapiens—all humans todayexcept Africans have Neanderthal genes ○ a Neanderthal bury site was found in Iraq—a large amount ofpollen found around a body indicating intentional burial andplacing of flowers ○ lived in Europe, Middle East and Asia at the end of the last iceage ○ were short, heavy, and more muscular
○ had larger brains (100cm3) ○ skull structure—protruding nose, large teeth, small chin ● ancient stones ○ anthropologists study ancient stones to accurately date a siteand discover about the hominids that used them, by looking at how they used the stone ■ analyze the things the stone cut, microscopicanalysis of tool for striations to match to purpose Forensic Anthropology ● help law enforcement identify human remains (after mass disasters, wars,homicides, suicides etc.) ● usually paleoanthropologists who have spent years studying human remains ● forensic anthropologists who go to war torn countries need a goodunderstanding of cultural anthropology to understand norms surrounding death in the culture ○ helps in identifying whether or not death is suspicious ○ religious ceremonies and beliefs—cremation vs. burial ● in Argentina, have been locating thousands of dead bodies since 1984, byruthless military regime that slaughtered and hid many dead bodies ● help identify the identity of a body Primatology ● study the anatomy and behaviors of living primates and what makes humanssimilar and different to primates ● primatologists observe primates in their natural habitats and in labs ● Jane Goodall went to Tanzania to observe chimpanzees (cannibalistic andviolent—waged war on other troops, made and used tools—peeling off leavesfrom branch and stabbing insects) ● Diane Fossey went to Rwanda to observe gorillas (anti-poaching) ● living in the primate habitat is difficult—eat their food, sleep with them,learn animal calls/gestures in order to get trust from primate ● similarities between all primates: ○ bond between mother and infant is important for survival in allprimate species ○ primates have longest infant dependency periods ○ communicate through facial expressions, touch, body language,vocalizations ○ all primates have rotating forearms and forward facing eyes ● differences between humans and primates: ○ humans are the only bipedalism ○ humans are only primates with a symbolic, spoken language andphysical ability to speak ● in lab settings, primatologists can understand specific behavior or anatomicaltraits in more detail than in the wild
● Sue Savage-Rumbaugh studied bonobo communication and has taught aprimate to communicate with symbols ○ doesn’t prove other primates can talk, but proves they can learn(to communicate with symbols) Human Variation ● the study of genetic differences between people and populations tounderstand the differences between people ● Why are humans different? ○ humans evolved overtime to survive in different conditions ○ Charles Darwin’s Natural selection theory: ■ variation ■ heritability (traits passed to offspring). However,many people migrate, thus causing heritability tobe hard to trace. ■ environmental fitness (adapt to environmentbetter, better offspring) ● blood types are connected to certain parts of the world, but don’t affectphysical characteristics
HSP3M – Introduction to Anthropology
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