Lecture Note
University
Imperial College LondonCourse
B101 | Medical BiosciencesPages
8
Academic year
2023
Lisa Ribau
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0
Resistance, biomarkers, perso treatment Introduction - secondary mutation restores the function of BRCA1/BRCA2, resulting in resistance to PARPi: Therapy resistance in cancer - resistance can occur via genetic & epigenetic changes in cancer cells/ tumour microenvironment (ex: increased matrix stiffness in liver cancers) - overcome resistance => alternative drug working via ≠ mechanisms => design drugs that specifically target this resistance => combination of therapies to target ≠ aspects of the tumour => personalised treatment Drug resistance in cancer - diagnosis (1st) = identifying the problem and giving it a name - prognosis (2nd) = prediction of the course of the disease, treatments and results => poor for patients w/ metastatic cancer: 90% of chemo failure are related to drug resistance - pharamacodynamics (PD) = how a drug affects the organism- pharmacokinetics (PK) = how the organism affects the drug 1) changes within cancer cells 2) CSCs3) epigenetic changes give rise to resistance
- drug absorbed - distributed => taken inside the cancer cell (drug influx) + activated to kill cells => drug efflux & metabolised - eliminated for patient safety limit amount of drug reaching tumour - drug activity also limited by => poor influx/ excessive efflux => drug inactivation/ lack of activation=> alterations in drug target=> activation of adaptive prosurvival responses=> lack of cell death due to dysfunctional apoptosis Mechanisms of drug resistance - decreased uptake (influx) => methotrexate (toxic folic analogue): mutation of one/ both folate transporters to enter cells=> nucleoside analogues: mutation of specific nucleoside transporters=> cisplatin (chemotherapy): reduction in plasma membrane receptors, transporters & endocytosis - increased drug efflux => P-glycoprotein (Pgp): ATP binding protein pump => pumps foreign substances out of cells => overexpression associated w/ resistance (doxorubicin, taxanes, vinca alkaloids) => inhibition of Pgp with verapamil can reverse drug resistance - altered drug metabolism to increase detoxification => glutathione (GSH): antioxidant that protects the cells => conjugates to platinum chemo drugs & modif them to substrates for ABC transporters (efflux)
=> CYP40: enzyme in the liver that inactivate irinotecan (Top inhibitor for colon cancer)=> metallothionein (MT): on the Golgi apparatus, bind platinum drugs & inactivates them - altered drug metabolism to decrease activation => Cytarabine (AraC) requires phosphorylation by deoxycytidine kinase => resistance when kinase levels reduce (downregulation/ mutation) - alterations of the drug target (mutations, altered expression levels...) => Gleevec resistance IF mutations at the binding site the drug within the BCR/ ABL p - changes in DNA repair pathways => cisplatin: enhancement in DNA repair mechanisms (high expression of ERCC1: in NER repair) - evasion of apoptotic pathways => inactivating mutations in genes coding for apoptotic p (p53...)=> activating mutations in genes coding for anti-apoptotic p (Bcl-2...) - collateral sensitivity: resistance to 1 drug confers hypersensitivity to another (new sensitivity) => same genetic alteration that caused resistance to 1 drug sensitises to another Cancer stem cells in drug resistance - cancer stem cells (CSCs): rare immortal cells within a tumour that can self-renew by dividing + give rise to many cell types constituting tumour (= pluripotent) => existence remains controversial - resistant to conventional chemo => not effectively killed => cause recurrence after treatment stopped => important target for anti cancer therapeutics - non CSCs can spontaneously generate new CSCs (dedifferentiate) => target CSCs AND non-CSCs- resistant because => relatively quiescent (G0 resting phase cell cycle): chemo only targets rapidly dividing cells => high expression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter p=> high aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity => oxidise & detoxify substrates=> express anti-apoptotic p (Bcl-2, Bcl-XL)
=> enhanced DNA damage repair => activate pro-survival signalling m (NOTCH, nuclear factor-kB) - resistance can be due to (but often both c.) => a. somatic mutation (insensitive cells cause relapse (become dominant cells) - develop gradually)=> b. cancer stem cells insensitive => persist => relapse due to re-growth of persistent stem cells => higher mutation risk => loss of therapeutic control Epigenetics & drug resistance - high rate of epigenetic changes (= not due to DNA) in cancer cells => diversity in gene expression => can lead to drug resistance - heterogenous tumours => drug kills most cells => epigenetically poised persistent tumour sustaining cell (cells in which chromatin domains have activation-associated histone modif H3K4me3 & repression-associated modif H3K27me3)=> resist & survive => expand & lead to treatment tolerance 1) chromatin modif conferring tolerance is lost => reversed tolerance (chemo-sensitive relapse) 2) selection of epigenetic state & fix gene expression => resistance (chemo-resistant relapse) 1) 2) CSCs divide asymmetrically to generate daughter CSCs and differentiated cancer cells can be rapidly activated upon suitable stimuli (include CSCs) dandelion effect:when cut off at ground levels, appears to be gone BUT the roots remain and the dandelion regrows
Cancer biomarkers: introduction - cancer biomarkers: substances produced by cancer cells or other cells in response to cancer at higher (or lower) levels under cancerous conditions - detected in circulation (blood, serum...), excretions, secretions (urine, ejaculate...) => assessed serially & non-invasively - detected within tissue => biopsy/ special imaging - alterations due to germline/ somatic mutations, transcriptional changes or post-translational modif => biomarkers can be p, nucleic acids, antibodies, peptides...=> biomarkers can also be collection of alterations (gene expression, proteomic and metabolic...) - some are associated w/ 1 cancer type - others w/ many types (BUT no universal cancer marker) - limitations: => noncancerous conditions can cause levels of biomarkers to increase (ex: PSA for prostate)=> not everyone with a cancer has higher level of associated biomarker=> not identified for every type of cancer differentiate affected patient from person without cancer AND ≠ stages of disease How are biomarkers used in cancer? 1) estimate risk of developing cancer => ex: if strong family history of ovarian cancer => genetic testing to check predisposing mutation 2) screening for cancer/ early diagnostic testing => screen healthy patients for malignancy: older ppl at risk (ex: gFOB test in bowel cancer) 3) diagnosis: Have I got cancer? What type of cancer is it? => identify whether a patient has cancer (ex: biopsy if lung nodule on chest CT scan // BCR-ABL fusion gene in blood or bone marrow for chronic myeloid leukaemia)
4) prognosis: How bad is it - what is the outlook? Is this going to become cancer? => use of clinicopathologic characteristics of a tumour (signs & symptoms) => new technologies: gene expression signatures (ex: 21-gene recurrence score) 5) predictive: Which treatment is right for me? How aggressive is this cancer? => predict how well a patient will respond to treatment/ which therapy is likely to be most effective => ex: KRAS for colorectal cancer (somatic mutations associated w/ poor EGFR therapies) 6) monitoring: Is this treatment working? => monitor status of the disease: detect recurrence/ determine response to therapy => ex: CEA in colorectal cancer to keep track of recurrence/ how well treatment working How do you discover biomarkers - 1st cancer biomarker: light chain of immunoglobulin in urine => 75% patients w/ myeloma - biomarker discovery associated w/ emergence of new & powerful analytical technology - gene-expression profiling = measure activity of thousands of genes at once- MS-base profiling = mass spectrometry to profile a tissue (often small metabolites)- peptidomics = direct measurement of endogenous peptides (through MS)- biomarker family = family members of a biomarker might also be good cancer biomarkers - secreted factors = p or nucleic acids secreted by cancer cells - protein arrays = monitor levels of activities of proteins - auto-antibodies = TAAs can serve as biosensors because tumour produce auto-antibodies - MS-imaging of tissue = visualise spatial distribution of m by molecular mass- gene fusion/ translocations- serum proteomics = MS to identify protein compo of serum/ other biofluids recurrence early breast cancer after therapy
- phases of cancer biomarker discovery & dvlp => preclinical exploratory studies: tumour + non-tumour specimens compared => generate hypo.=> assay dvlp & validation: clinical assay must discriminate individuals with/ without cancer => retrospective longitudinal clinical repository studies: detect preclinical disease => prospective screening studies: individuals screened w/ assay + diagnostic if screened positive=> randomised control trials: non-biased study (randomly assigned): does this screening helps? What’s on the horizon? - iKnife (intelligent knife): test if all malignant tissue surrounding tumour has been removed in surgery => burns tissue as it cuts => gaseous m collected & identified by mass spectrometry => distinguish phospholipids that compose cellular membranes (biomarker) => high if malignant => if malignant, surgeon can remove it immediately, without secondary surgery => avoids pb of residual tumour left behind Personalised treatment - personalised treatment = stratified medicine = classify tumours according to their genetic make-up instead of where they grow in the body => treatment plan for a particular patient - Identifying who to treat: how treatment kills tumours => develop biomarkers to identify patients in which it will work Combating drug resistance: understand mechanisms => predictive biomarkers + clinical approches to prevent/ delay Optimising combination therapy: why some combinations work => combat resistance + find predictive markers aerosol (volatile compounds & smoke) ionised + changed into charged gaseous ions - phosphatidic acid- phosphatidic ethanolamine- lysophosphatidic
Case study - patient 4136: metastatic ER+HER2- breast cancer diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ => recurrence in lymph nodes after 10 years disease-free => resistance to endocrine therapies & chemotherapy => resection (surgery) + mTOR inhibitor => disease progression => personalised immunotherapy: Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) => complete regression => patient’s tumour cells were DNA sequenced to identify mutation => T cells from the patient were isolated & exposed to mutations via APC cells => cultured + activated (w/ small piece tumour) => expanded + reinfused => seek, infiltrate & mount an immune attack against tumour => 6 weeks after transfer: 51% reduction select T-cells that specifically fight against the tumour’s mutation => clone these
CBIO 9 Resistance, biomarkers, personalised treatment
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