Lecture Note
University
Imperial College LondonCourse
B101 | Medical BiosciencesPages
8
Academic year
2023
Lisa Ribau
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0
Hallmark 6: tissue invasion & metastasis - metastases = 90% of cancer deaths Landmark discoveries - 1st description in 1758 but relevance recognised in the 19th century => Paget’s ‘Seed and Soil’ theory: metastatic patterns do not follow blood flow distribution => ‘seeds’ (tumour cells) + ‘congenial soil’ (receptive metastatic microenvironment) interaction=> non-random: preference of metastasis at distinct sites (lung, liver, bone) - 1970: cancer cells travel through all organs BUT metastasis only develop in compatible organs - stage by stage process => primary tumour growth (invasion of adjacent tissue)=> angiogenesis = vascularisation => detachment => intravasation (blood vessel penetration)=> transport through circulatory and/or lymphatic system - cell arrest at a secondary site=> extravasation (escaping blood vessels)=> growth in a secondary organ (micrometastasis - macrometastasis) - metastasis in an organ is still the primary site cancer (ex: breast cancer in the lung) Monoclonal & polyclonal metastasis - genetic mutations => genomic instability => create cell subtypes: ‘clones’ => may be metastatic - metastasis with further genetic alterations of clone = phenotypically heterogenic monoclonal- metastasis containing many clones = polyclonal- metastasis containing 1 clone = monoclonal Clinical considerations - metastatic tumour often indicates a terminal disease: survival is not improving (only breast cancer)- cancer cells travelling in blood vessels = circulating tumour cells (CTCs) => blood also contains cell-free tumour DNA (ctDNA), RNA (ctRNA), proteins, vesicles (exosomes)
- liquid biopsy = clinical test to detect circulating tumour cells or tumour-derived material in the blood & other fluids (urine, saliva, pleural effusions, cerebrospinal fluid CSF) => uses highly sensitive assays: CellSearch platform (selection cells expressing EpCAM => distinguish CTCsusing cytokeratin monoclonal ab, DAPI stain, lack CD45 p)=> non-invasive monitoring => BUT ctDNA is fragmented & very rare & CTCs are rare, w/ no universal surface marker => samples enriched for CTCs => negative enrichment: remove other blood cell=> positive enrichment: select surface markers (ex: epithelial cell adhesion molecules EpCAM) BUT do not distinguish malignant or not => characterise CTCs molecularly Overview - angiogenesis = formation of new blood vessel from existing vasculature => driven through pro-angiogenic molecules released by cancer cells (ex: VEGF) => around the tumour mass to provide nutrients & O2 to fast-growing cancer cells => role in intravasation & extravasation: leaky structures of the new vessel around the tumour enter blood stream - during intravasation + extravasation: degradation & remodelling of basement membrane (BM)- BM produced by cells (epithelial, endothelial, stromal = mesenchymal) => separate epithelium/ endothelium from stroma & interstitial matrix - ECM = BM + interstitial matrix => BM (w/ basal lamina underlying epithelium) more compact, less porous, consists of collagen IV, laminin, fibronectin, nidogen, perlecan => I.M. consists of fibrillar collagen, proteoglycan (hyaluronan), fibronectin
- proteases enzymes (secreted by tumours) degrade ECM proteins by hydrolysis of peptide bonds => cathepsins: cathepsin D (type of aspartic protease), cathepsin B, L, H (type of cysteine protease), cathepsin A (type of serine protease) => turnover & degradation of ECM=> processing of GF, cytokines, chemokines=> influence cell-cell adhesion m => urokinase (type of serine protease): urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) => regulation of ECM degradation => regulation of cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, survival by interaction with integrins...=> binds to vitronectin in ECM => changes in cell morpho, migration, signalling => induce EMT => matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs): collagenases, gelatinases, stromelysins, membrane-type... => degradation of collagen & other ECM p=> regulation of cell behaviour Cell attachment and motility - important cell-cell junction: the adherens junction (composed of cadherins) => regulate other cell-cell junctions + cause cells to adhere to their neighbours - integrins: adhesion m that interact w/ ECM ligands & recruit focal adhesion kinase (FAK) => autophosphorylate, form complex w/ Src & activate both kinases => FAK/Src complex activate signalling molecules - epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) by EMT-activating transcription factor => cancerous cells lose epithelial characteristics & gain mesenchymal (stromal) characteristics sense ECM alterations & become active
- loss/ reduction of cell-cell adhesion (cadherin) + dysmorphic shape (loss of polarity), integrins => invasive + migratory properties - at new site: reverse process => mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) - integrins couple with intracellular p of cytoskeleton (ex: actin) => filamentous (F)-actin important for forward cell protrusion => mesenchymal migration on BM=> rapid production & retraction of actin protrusions w/ blebs (non-actin protrusions produced by hydrostatic pressure + cytoplasmic flow) => amoeboid migration on BM(round & ellipsoïde cell, doesn’t adhere strongly to ECM) - epithelial/ bulk migration: group of cells that move in clusters, sheets, strands, fluid-like masses Routes of metastasis - routes of metastasis: => haematogenous spread (blood vessels): common for sarcomas & carcinomas=> lymphatic spread (lymphatic vessels): common for carcinomas => can then lead to haematogenous spread (see after): in breast cancers for ex => transcoelomic spread (surfaces of body cavities):
ovarian cancer spreads into peritoneal cavity & lung cancer spreads into pleural cavity bw membrane visceral peritoneum & peritoneum surrounding abdominal wall bw visceral & parietal pulmonary pleurae => perineural spread (layers of nerves): common in head & neck, prostate, colorectal cancers => leptomeningeal spread (cerebral spinal fluid CSF): common in brain (non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma) => in the meninges of brain or in epidural space & dura mater of spinal cord - TNM (tumour-node-metastasis) staging system: describe amount and spread of cancer in body => tumour-draining lymph nodes removed to prevent metastases - lymphatics drain into blood through left lymphatic duct (thoracic duct)/ right lymphatic duct - final destination determined by circulation (blood flow & structures): favour certain organs => ex: breast and prostate cancers often have bone metastases => enter venous blood, lymph vessels & nerves => carried through arterial system until bone - some metastasis don’t travel far: ex: ovarian cancer and peritoneal cavity... (no other organs)- some metastasis don’t take circulation into account: ex: melanoma metastases in lungs... The metastasic niche
- metastatic niche: special microenvironment at new site => promote colonisation of tumour cells TDSFs = tumour-derived secreted factors, EVs = extracellular vesicles, BMDCs = bone-marrow-derived cells, TAM = tumour-associated macrophages, Treg = regulatory T cells, TAN = tumour-associated neutrophils, MDSC = myeloid-derived suppressor cells, BV = blood vessel, LV = lymphatic vessel - priming: cancer cells at primary site become hypoxic & inflammatory => release cytokines, ECM remodelling enzymes, exosomes cell-cell communication vesicles: transport suppressive/ metastasis accelerating cargoes => reach site via circulation for subsequent invasion: immature pre-metastatic niche - licensing: supporting cells (bone marrow-derived cells/ immune cells) attracted by chemokines => ECM remodelled: alter local microenvironment (cellular compo, blood supply...)=> provide metastasis-promoting cytokines & chemokines => mature pre-metastatic niche - initiation: cancer cells arrive at new site & remodel environment to promote growth => new ECM components produced (ex: matrix protein tenascin C for breast cancer in lungs)=> signal (ex: TGF-B) to stromal cells (ex: fibroblasts) to add more matrix p (ex: periostin or fibronectin) => secrete crosslinking enzymes (ex: LOX, PLOD2) => stiffen ECM & increase integrin adhesion => only cells facilitating invasion are expressed => micrometastases Actions of exosomes:
- progression: growth & expansion => macrometastasis - metastasis occur early/ late in primary tumour formation w/ a timescale of brief period or decades- BUT can pause at any point: dormancy state (cells reside in new tissues without metastasis) => CTCs that infiltrate distant organs & survive there = disseminated tumour cells (DTCs)=> clinically, dormant phase = time bw removal of primary tumour (disease-free) & relapse => arise from proliferative quiescence or insufficient vascularisation/ through immune defences=> promising therapeutic window (identify favouring microenvironments, reactivation triggers...) In vitro models to study metastasis - in vitro = outside a living organism (test tube, culture dish...) // in vivo = in a living organism - study cell migration in vivo in various cancer cell lines: special assays and devices => scratch assay (wound-healing assay)=> boyden chambers=> micropatterning and pre-forming rings or paths=> microfluidic devices - study interactions bw cancer cells & other cell types (ex: metastasis of breast cancer to bones) - monoculture (osteoblasts or cancer cells alone)- co-culture (osteoblasts + cancer cells) - microfluidic device: set of micro-channels connected together inside a mould => control fluid flow, pump nutrients & drugs => represent blood flow + co-culture ≠ cell types In vivo models to study metastasis - in vivo models: amoebae (single-cell animal), worms, flies, fish, mice... => simple organisms but fundamental biology conserved (genetic code/ eukaryotic cell structure...) - study cell migration & chemokine signalling w/ the amoeba Dictyostelium
- study cells crossing BM in invasion with the nematode worm C.elegans => cell cycle arrested in G1 - chromatin modified - some transcription factors upregulated ex: FOS-1A orthologue of FOS in humans - cancer cells injected into larger animals (mice...): original site of primary tumour: orthotopic xenograft => BUT can also be injected subcutaneously elsewhere to model primary tumours: xenograft - intravenous injection to study cells circulation => study metastasis when reach 2nd location tissue from 1 species grafted into another ( ≠ allograft: same species) = primary tumour occurs in the same place in the body as model (same organ) => mice are immunocompromised so that they don’t reject human cells=> less realistic microenvironment - mice can be infected with luciferin substrate (fluorescent) => presence, localisation, size xenografts - the 3 Rs of animal experiments: => replacement: replace animal models if possible => reduction: use the minimal amount of animals => refinement: minimise suffering, pain (analgesics, imaging...) cell-line derived xenografts (CDX) or patient derived xenografts (PDX)
CBIO 4 Tissue invasion & metastasis
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