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Carlo Mananquil
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CLINICAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY LIPID AND LIPOPROTEIN METHODOLOGIES OUTLINE • Cholesterol Methodologies o Notes to Remember o Chemical Methods o General Methods o Colorimetric Non-Enzymatic Method o Enzymatic Methods o CDC Reference Method o Clinical Significance • Triglyceride Methodologies o Notes to Remember o Chemical Methods o Enzymatic Method o CDC Reference Method o Clinical Significance • Lipoprotein Methodologies o Notes to Remember o Patient Preparation o Ultracentrifugation o Electrophoresis o Polyanion Precipitation Method o HDL o LDL o Other Methods LIPID & LIPOPROTEIN METHODOLOGIES • Important in assessing risk for atherosclerosis which may lead to myocardial infarction • Lipid profile o Measured in laboratory for lipid & lipoproteins determination o Includes: ▪ Cholesterol ▪ TAG ▪ Lipoprotein (VLDL, LDL, HDL) CHOLESTEROL METHODOLOGIES • Cholesterol o Most atherogenic ▪ Not metabolized as energy ▪ Majority of cholesterol in synthesized by liver • Diet is not a significant factor in cholesterol management ▪ Can be transported to lived by LDL • Can be deposited to blood vessels NOTES TO REMEMBER • Total cholesterol is measured (CE + FC/HDL-C, LDL-C) o Total cholesterol including lipoproteins • Sample : 12-hour fasting serum or plasma (not necessary) o Fasting has little effect o EDTA : preferred anticoagulant • Increases with age : 2 mg/dL/year (45-65 years old) • Two weeks prior to testing: patient is on usual diet, no restrictions in diet & activity • Recommendation : o Initial screening for lipid profile: age 20 or above ▪ Should be repeated at least once every 5 years CHEMICAL METHODS • Dehydration and oxidation of cholesterol to form a colored compound (colorimetric method) o The presence of double bonds and hydroxyl group in the sterol’s structure makes it possible for cholesterol to carry out a colorimetric assay. ▪ Binds chromogenic agents to form color • Variables : o Hemolysis : falsely increased o Icteric : 5mg to 6mg increase in cholesterol per mg of bilirubin ▪ Bilirubin interferes with TC measurement (absorbs light @ 500nm) ▪ Icteric - dark yellow to orange discoloration of plasma/serum due to high bilirubin GENERAL METHODS • Only method in CC involving multiple steps* • One-step Method (Pearson, Stern and Mac Gavack) o Colorimetry • Two-step Method (Bloors) o Extraction + Colorimetry • Three-step Method (Abell-Kendal Assay) o Saponification + Extraction + Colorimetry o Most commonly used method • Four-step Method (Schoenheimer, Sperry, Parekh, Jung) o Precipitation (acid soln) + Saponification + Extraction + Colorimetry COLORIMETRIC NON-ENZYMATIC METHOD • End-product do not use enzymes • Liebermann Burchardt Reaction o Acetic anhydride test o Most commonly used chemical method/colorimetric non-enzymatic method (colorimetric assay) o Sodium sulfate : end color stabilizer ▪ Used because end color may fluctuate • Salkowski Reaction COLORIMETRIC ENZYMATIC METHODS CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE METHOD • H 2 O 2 produced is proportional to amount of cholesterol. • Measures free cholesterol (Hydrolyzation of CE to cholesterol is needed to measure CE) • Advantages : o Microliter amount of sample o Do no require preliminary extraction step; short time • False increase : gross hemolysis • False decrease : o Hemoglobin – pseudoperoxidase activity may consume H 2 O 2 o Bilirubin – oxidized by H 2 O 2 losing its absorbance ▪ 5 mg/dL ↑ bilirubin = ↓ cholesterol (5-15%) • Chromogenic Agents o Provide color to H 2 O 2 o Used agents ▪ Phenol ▪ 4-aminoantipyrine o
CDC REFERENCE METHOD • Abell, Levy and Brodie Method o Modification of Abell-Kendal Assay (3-step method) o Chemical method o Uses hexane extraction after hydrolysis with alcoholic KOH followed by reaction with Liebermann Burchardt color reagent. o Saponification (hydrolysis) → extraction (hexane) → colorimetry (Libermann-Burchardt) CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE • Increased Cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia) o Hyperlipoproteinemia II, III, V o Biliary cirrhosis o Nephrotic syndrome o Poorly controlled diabetes mellitus o Alcoholism o Primary hypothyroidism ▪ Thyroid hormones metabolize cholesterol ▪ Reduced thyroid hormone = decreased cholesterol metabolism = ↑ cholesterol • Decreased Cholesterol (hypocholesterolemia) o Severe hepatocellular disease (most common cause) ▪ Hepatic cirrhosis - total malfunction of liver ▪ Deficient synthesis of cholesterol in liver o Malnutrition o Severe burns o Hyperthyroidism ▪ Increased thyroid hormone = increased cholesterol metabolism o Malabsorption syndrome ▪ Improper absorption of dietary cholesterol TRIGLYCERIDE METHODOLOGIES NOTES TO REMEMBER • Sample : 10-12 hr fasting serum or plasma (necessary) o If stored at -20 ̊C – warm sample to 37 ̊C before testing. o Fasting - no food intake, only water is allowed ▪ TAG is mainly derived from diet ▪ Recent food intake may increase TAG levels • Lipemia : >400 mg/dL TAG • Increasing with age : 2mg/dL/year (45-65 years old) • Most commonly used method is based on hydrolysis of TAG and measurement of glycerol o Glycerol measured is directly proportional to TAG • Interferences : o Bilirubin – interferes both spectrally and chemically o Hemolysis – may cause dilution of lipid (false ↓) o Ascorbic acid CHEMICAL METHODS • Van Handel & Zilversmith – Colorimetric method o Uses spectrophotometry • Hantzsch Condensation – Fluorometric method o Fluorochromes are added for fluorescence ENZYMATIC METHOD GLYCEROL KINASE METHOD • Universally used for TAG measurement • Involves hydrolysis of TAG to free fatty acids and glycerol, followed by phosphorylation of glycerol to glycerophosphate o glycerophosphate = glycerol-3-phosphate o glycerophosphate is proportional to TAG levels • Major interference : o Glycerol (free glycerol) ▪ Perform TAG blank to correct TAG values. ▪ Can interfere or undergo phosphorylation ▪ False increase in TAG measurement • Common step : o Hydrolyze → phosphorylate • Reaction A o The amount of NADH proportional to TAG o Measured at 500-600nm, spectrophotometrically • Reaction B o The amount of H2O2 is proportional to TAG o Measured at 500 nm, spectrophotometrically • Reaction C o Involves ADP rather than glycerophosphate o NADH consumption is measured at 340 nm. TRIGLYCERIDE BLANKS • Free glycerol in serum may interfere w/ enzymatic methods • Not routinely performed (little practical importance) • Glycerol are normally present in serum (<1.5mg/dL)
• <1.5 mg/dL free serum glycerol = ≈14mg/dL TAG • ↑ free glycerol : strenuous exercise, uncontrolled diabetes. o Diabetes - Inefficient metabolism of glucose o After exercise, non-carbohydrate energy source (TAG → Glycerol + fatty acids) are used • Blank Assay : o Removal of lipase in the reaction series to detect only free glycerol in the serum o Without lipase, triglyceride will not be hydrolyzed into glycerol and fatty acid o Therefore, only the free glycerol in the sample will be measured. The measured free glycerol is subtracted from the triglyceride measured. (corrected method) CDC REFERENCE METHOD • Modified Van Handel and Zilversmith o Colorimetric chemical method o Cannot be automated (time-consuming) o Involves alkaline hydrolysis (saponification) using alcoholic KOH, solvent extraction with chloroform and the extract is treated with sicilic acid (chromatography) to isolate TAG, and a color reaction with chromotrophic acid gives rise to pink end color o Interfering substances are removed during extraction with chloroform. ▪ Interfering subs. - bilirubin, Hgb, ascorbic acid o Sicilic acid – remove phospholipids from the chloroform extract. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE • Increased Triglyceride (hypertriglyceridemia) o Hyperlipoproteinemia ▪ I, IIb, III, IV, V o Alcoholism o Nephrotic syndrome o Hypothyroidism o Pancreatitis o Diabetes mellitus • Decreased Triglyceride (hyportriglyceridemia) o Malabsorption o Malnutrition o Hyperthyroidism o Brain infarction LIPOPROTEIN METHODOLOGIES • Lipoprotein o Lipid transporters o Concentration assumes concentration of lipids NOTES TO REMEMBER • Preferred sample : 10-12 hr fasting serum (SST) o SST - serum separator tube o Fasting is unnecessary (Cholesterol & HDL) • EDTA plasma can be used o Cholesterol and TAG concentration are 3% lower than serum • Cholesterol, TAG and HDL can be used using frozen sample. o Sample should be thawed first before analysis • Lipemia in non-fasting serum : hyperlipidemia, patient under total parenteral nutrition therapy. • Lipoproteins are differentiated based on electrophoresis and buoyant density. o Basis of nomenclature PATIENT PREPARATION • Fasting : 10-12 hours o Fasting state : TAG is present in VLDL o Non-fasting state : TAG is present in chylomicrons ▪ Only Cholesterol and HDL can be measured using non-fasting sample. • Diet : o HDL and LDL – declined after eating • Posture : o Patient should be seated for 5 minutes prior to collection o Standing to seating: extravascular fluid enters the vascular system causing hemodilution ▪ 10% decrease (TC, HDL, LDL, Apo-A1, Apo-B) is observed after 20-minute period of seating ULTRACENTRIFUGATION • Reference method for quantitation of lipoproteins • Basis of the classical term for different lipoproteins • Fractionation of lipoproteins based on density. o Density of lipoprotein is based on their protein and TAG content. • Reagent : Potassium bromide solution (1.063 density) • Frozen sample should not be used! o TAG-rich LPP do not withstand freezing ELECTROPHORESIS • Separation of lipoprotein based on their net charge. • Basis of the nomenclature due to electrophoretic pattern • Electrophoretic pattern : o Origin (point of application): Cathode (-) o HDL - α-band – most anodal (+) o VLDL - between α2 and β band ; 2 nd most anodal o LDL - β band; least anodal o Chylomicrons - remains in the origin ▪ No electrophoretic pattern o IDL - may migrate to beta or pre-beta region o Lp(a) - migrate toward pre-beta region o Lipoprotein X - only migrate toward the cathode o β-VLDL - migrate with LDL • Support Medium : o Agarose Gel • Staining dyes : o Oil Red O, Fat Red 7B, Sudan Black B ▪ Reacts with the ester bonds in TAG and CE
POLYANION PRECIPITATION METHOD • Only measures one type of lipoprotein • Some lipoproteins are precipitated with polyanions and divalent ions o Polyanions : Heparin sulfate, dextran sulfate, phosphotungstate o Divalent Ions : Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Mn 2+ • Most useful lipoprotein test: Enzymatic method + Precipitation method HDL • Uses dextran sulfate (synthetic heparin) with magnesium (precipitant). o Precipitate Apo-B containing lpp (CM, LDL, VLDL) • Semi-automated analyzers: Sample are pre-treated with precipitant to remove other lipoproteins. o Most consistent analytical error in HDL assay is the presence of Apo-B containing lipoproteins • CDC Reference Method : 3-step method 1. Ultracentrifugation – removes VLDL & chylomicrons 2. Precipitation (heparin + Mg 2+ ) – removed remaining Apo-B containing lipoprotein (LDL) 3. Abell-Kendal Assay – method for cholesterol analysis • Homogenous assay – most popular method for HDL analysis o Utilized by most fully-automated analyzers o Do not require pretreatment with precipitant. o First Reaction : reagent forms complex with non-HDL lipoprotein o Second Reaction : releases HDL to be measured enzymatically. LDL • Carry cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissue BETA QUANTIFICATION METHOD • Combination of ultracentrifugation and chemical precipitation. • Cholesterol is contained in the three major lipoproteins (HDL, VLDL, LDL) o Total Cholesterol = HDL + LDL + VLDL • 1st Step : ultracentrifugation to remove VLDL and CM • 2nd Step : measure total cholesterol (HDL + LDL) • 3rd Step : precipitation of LDL then measure HDL • LDL = TC - HDL HOMOGENOUS DIRECT LDL METHOD • Useful when TAG is elevated (600 mg/dL) • Uses two reagents: o First Reagent : selective removal of non-LDL lpp o Second Reagent : release of cholesterol from LDL then measured enzymatically. CALCULATION OF LDL • Indirect method of LDL quantitation • Widely used method in clinical laboratory o Incorporated in most fully automated analyzers • Two Formula : o Friedewald Formula – most commonly used o De Long Formula • Limitations : o TAG >400 mg/dL o Presence of CM and β-VLDL • Friedewald Formula o General Formula : • De Long Formula o General Formula : OTHER METHODS • Chromatography o Uses either Gel Chromatography or Affinity Chromatography. • Immunochemical methods o Uses antibodies specific to epitopes present on the lipoproteins. • Immunoassay/Immunonephelometry o Used for Apolipoprotein Assay o Utilizes antibody specific against specific apolipoprotein o An antibody-apolipoprotein complex in measured using nephelometry. o Studies have shown that Apo A1 and Apo B are better indicators of atherosclerotic disease than lipoprotein assay o Lp (a) is measured using immunoturbidimetry
Clinical Chemistry Lab - 05 Lipid and Lipoprotein Methodologies
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